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K-12 Math Projects:
About Project-Based Learning

About Project-Based Learning

Recent trends in K-12 education include active learning, blended learning, and project-based learning.  Projects help students personalize their learning and are ideal for gaining key knowledge and understanding of content and answering the question: Where am I ever going to use this?  When project-based learning (PBL) is introduced into classrooms, "Teachers and schools can make use of externally developed PBL curricula, they can develop their own PBL approaches, or PBL can be part of a whole-school reform effort" (Condliffe, Quint, Visher, Bangser, Drohojowska, Saco, & Nelson, 2017, p. iii).

Among the greatest benefits of project-based learning (PBL) are gains in students' critical-thinking skills and development of their interpersonal and intrapersonal skills.  PBL is also an ideal way to help learners gain speaking and presentation skills indentified in the Common Core Standards. PBL in mathematics, particularly when completed in teams, helps learners "model with mathematics" as they "apply the mathematics they know to solve problems arising in everyday life, society, and the workplace,"  "use tools strategically,"  and "construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others," as noted in the Common Core Standards (2010) for Mathematical Practice.

However, implementation is not without concerns.  As Condliffe and colleagues (2017) noted, math teachers have found it difficult to implement PBL.  In general:

It requires that teachers modify their roles (from directors to facilitators of learning) and that they tolerate not only ambiguity but also more noise and movement in the classroom. Teachers must adopt new classroom management skills and learn how best to support their students in learning, using technology when appropriate. And they must believe that their students are fully capable of learning through this approach. Given these challenges, professional development — both initial training and continuing support — is likely to be essential to the successful implementation of PBL." (p. iii)

Additionally, a major shortcoming in many student projects is that educators tend to assign projects just for the sake of doing them (Goodwin, 2010).  As Bryan Goodwin found in his literature review on PBL, "Educators can avoid this phenomenon and realize the potential of projects to promote students' critical-thinking by framing projects around a driving question" (2010, p. 81).

This challenging open-ended driving question or problem is just one of the essential elements of meaningful projects, according to John Larmer and John R. Mergendoller (2010) of BIE.  They updated their PBL model in 2014 to what they called a "gold standard" (See their 2015 blog post on why), and the Gold Standard PBL: Project Based Teaching Practices (Larmer, 2015), which is also the source for the image on PBL).

The Gold Standard PBL: Essential Project Design Elements include:

1. A challenging problem or question
2. Sustained inquiry
3. Authenticity
4. Student voice & choice
5. Reflection
6. Critique & revision
7. A public product (Larmar, 2020)

Every good project should be tied to standards so that students gain key knowledge and understanding.  Four key areas serve as indicators that PBL is grounded in standards:

1. Curricular Content
2. 21st Century Skills
3. Formative and Summative Learning Opportunities
4. Intentional, Aligned, Varied, and Constant Assessment (Gorman, 2019, para. 1).

Gorman (2019) noted having a teacher first deliver content and then having a follow-up project is not truly PBL.  "In true Project Based Learning the project uncovers and facilitates the learning of significant content. ... PBL provides the rigor of learning new content along with the engagement apparent in a student-centered program based on deeper learning. The content becomes the “what” while PBL is the “how” " (para. 5).

Students need to perceive the work as meaningful to them.  A clear connection to an entry event adding this meaning might be via almost anything: "a video, a lively discussion, a guest speaker, a field trip, or a piece of mock correspondence that sets up a scenario" (Larmer & Mergendoller, 2010, p. 35).  Students need a voice and choice in fulfilling project requirements, keeping in mind that limited choices be considered and that "teachers should design projects with the extent of student choice that fits their own style and students" (2010, p. 36).  Projects should give students opportunities to build 21st century skills (or success skills) and to use technology that will be useful to them in life and the workplace.  Projects should enable learners to conduct real inquiry.  This has to do with authenticity or how real-world a project is.  With "real inquiry comes innovation--a new answer to a driving question, a new product, or an individually generated solution to a problem" (2010, p. 37).

Learners should receive feedback to use in revision, as learning that real-world work often involves revision.  Outside experts or mentors can also provide input (Larmer & Mergendoller, 2010).  Teachers should not be the only ones to provide this feedback.  Peer-editing sessions with the aid of appropriate rubrics or checklists can be useful for students to present their rough drafts to each other (Pahomov, 2014).

Students should publicly present their work, as they will be more motivated to produce a quality product when knowing a real audience will view it (Larmer & Mergendoller, 2015, 2010).  As Larissa Pahomov (2014) pointed out in Authentic Learning in the Digital Age, "Why should students put so much effort into a product that is only going to be viewed by one person?" -- the teacher (p. 92).  Although there might be live presentations to share projects, "they should also be designed to stand on their own, after the formal presentation has ended" (p. 87).  A venue for presenting completed projects might be "as simple a setting up a gallery in the hallway or a landing page for links to projects" (p. 92).  A blog or wiki is ideal for posting online presentations, which elevates projects beyond the school walls.  "What makes this process meaningful, however, is when students have been creating their project with a particular audience in mind and then they target that audience once the content has been posted" (p. 98).  Projects might be entered into contests and competitions, or presented to real-world professionals for feedback.

If projects involve teamwork, educators will need to emphasize commitment to the team as an essential component for success of group work.  Larmer (2014) noted that this may not automatically emerge, but a "sense of responsibility to their peers can be one of the most powerful motivating factors for students working on a project in teams" (p. 45).  To help support teamwork, teachers might consider "constructing list of norms or a rubric with students; having students write contracts for how they will work together; providing them with tools, such as task planners and online collaboration platforms; and teaching them how to resolve conflicts and make decisions. During a project, have team members frequently check in with one another—and the teacher—to be sure things are going smoothly" (p. 45).

Finally, projects should include the element of reflection.  Per Larmer and Mergendoller (2015), "students should reflect on what they’re learning, how they’re learning, and what they have accomplished in a project" (Two new elements section).  Self-Reflection on Project Work from BIE's PBLWorks is one such template.

With the above being said, Volker Ulm (2011) offered teachers some sound advice regarding math project-based learning:

Enriching classroom teaching with projects is certainly the most challenging, but at the same time the most beneficial form of independent learning. It is challenging because it requires high-level skills on the part of the students, e.g. skills in applying methods, self-management, and social competence. So project-based learning should never degenerate into a teacher-centered training course where ultimately the teacher still does all the planning, structuring and organizing, prepares and procures all the materials, or even produces and presents the results. (p. 44)

 

Key Questions

Thus, projects should result from students' attempts to answer essential questions.  They can take many forms: products, presentations, performances.  They might fit any of three structures: interpersonal, information sharing, or problem-solving.  When selecting an existing project, or creating one of your own, consider the following.  In terms of math projects:

1. Is the project devoted only to mathematics (or a single subject area), or is there a link to other curricular areas?

2. Is the project tied to standards for the curricular areas addressed, such as those from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, the Common Core Standards, or the National Education Technology Standards?

3. Does the project come with classroom instructional materials (e.g., teacher resources, student activities, rubrics and assessment tools)?

4. Can all students in your class participate? Projects should not be reserved for your talented and gifted students, as all students should be able to benefit.

5. What is the total time for project completion?

6. Is the project collaborative in nature? A collaborative project, particularly involving students outside your own school setting, will take more time and monitoring to help students learn how to be a part of a team and communicate appropriately with others.

7. How will students benefit both academically and personally from their involvement in the project?  Consider that when students interact with other students and experts across the country or internationally, they get a broader feel for diversity.  Their participation in an actual real world activity might encourage them to do their best work, and see the relevance of mathematics in their daily lives.  If students have input into project selection, and like the topic, they will tend to become more involved and excited about their learning.

8. Is there a cost involved to participate?

 

 

The Methodology--PBL models and tips

Adding to the above, educators need to decide on what they mean by project-based learning (PBL) and which model is needed.  In World Class Learners: Educating Creative and Entrepreneurial Students, Yong Zhao (2012) noted three forms of PBL, according to J. Robinson (2013): an academic model, a mixed model, and an entrepreneurial model.

• In an academic model, all elements are controlled by the teacher.  The goal is to teach prescribed content and skills.  Products are not meant for authentic consumption.
• In a mixed model of PBL, the artifacts students create (sometimes for consumers outside of school) and prescribed content are valued.  Still under the control of the teacher, students have a degree of freedom within the project.  The focus is more on learning real world skills, rather than transmitting knowledge.  Both of these latter models are about teaching the curriculum.
• The third PBL method is a product-oriented Entrepreneurial Model, which is the most valued for developing 21st century skills and an entrepreneurial mindset.  Students who work individually or collaboratively are more in control of products, which must meet an authentic consumer need.  Students develop a business plan and the teacher takes on the role of consultant.  (Robinson, 2013)

Michael Stone (Schwartz, 2016) provided the following tips for success to guide the methodology.

1. Make projects explicitly tied to standards.  This helps justify the time investment.
2. Balance clear expectations with open-ended problems.  Stone indicated, "the strength of a project depends heavily on the initial driving question developed by the teacher."  The rubric should be clear about expectations and designed around the driving question.
3. Assess process alongside content.  Per Stone, process-oriented goals "like collaboration, critical thinking, communication and innovation" should be included on the rubric "alongside the specific content goals."  This demonstrates their equal importance.  Students should document the development of their projects to illustrate their role in achieving process goals.
4. Anticipate the skills and design scaffolds.  "In addition to thinking through the driving question and the learning standards students would need to answer that question, the teacher also thinks ahead about the likely gaps in skills students are going to have both in content and process."  Scaffold categories might include whole class activities, station activities, workshops, and focus groups.
5. Transfer accountability to students.  Consider using contracts--"students make contracts with one another about how each member of a group is expected to participate, and students set the consequences for failure to do so."  To illustrate, Stone indicated students have assigned detentions or reduced final project grades when others did not meet the terms of the contract.

As projects should be ongoing, Gorman (2019) suggested that proper scaffolding within a PBL unit "includes both learning activities and effective ongoing assessment. In fact, some of these activities might actually be existing lessons that a teacher has always used. It is even possible and probable that part of the scaffold will include readings, lectures, and even a worksheet, although it is important to keep a balance using all of Bloom’s levels. While assessment is varied, there is nothing wrong with including a summative test" (para. 5).

In order to tie projects to math standards, Andrew Miller (2011) suggested that teachers need to pick or make an appropriate time for projects (e.g., during a three-week unit on a specific math learning target).  Pick a standard with an easy real-life application.

Learn More on Project-based Learning

These resources are for those who need to know more before engaging in projects and inquiry-based learning.

Designing Learning is a section within the Galileo Educational Network Association, which includes a series on the nature of inquiry-based learning.  Learn about what inquiry is all about, choosing a topic, essential questions, inquiry and assessment, and then go to the section for Classroom Examples of projects for elementary, middle, and secondary students and a rubric for assessing inquiry projects.

Framework for High Quality Project Based Learning (2018) "describes PBL in terms of the student experience."  The Buck Institute for Education facilitated the development of the framework with support from Project Management Institute Educational Foundation and the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation (About section).  Key elements of the PBL framework include intellectual challenge and accomplishment, authenticity, creating a public product, collaboration, project management, and reflection.

Krauss, J., & Boss, S. (2013). Thinking Through Project-Based Learning: Guiding Deeper Inquiry provides an overview of PBL including findings on brain development and connections to Common Core Standards; numerous how-tos and sample projects for K-12; strategies for integrating PBL into main subject areas, across disciplines (science, social studies, language arts, math), and with technology and social media; ideas to involve the community and showcasing student work.

Performance Tasks or Projects? Complementary Approaches for Student Engagement: In this article, authors Jay McTighe and John Larmer (2022, June 8) note that performance tasks and projects are not identical.  They provide "Eight key dimensions [that] can help underscore the differences and similarities between performance tasks and projects, so educators know how to use each of them appropriately."

PBL-Online has all the resources you need to design and manage high quality projects for middle and high school students.  You can learn how to design your own project, what project based learning is all about, search for projects developed by others or contribute your own, review research on PBL, and access other web resources on the topic. PBL-Online was created under the leadership of the Buck Institute of Education, with major contributions from the George Lucas Foundation and others.

PBLWorks from the Buck Institute for Education (BIE) has an overview of project based learning (PBL), plus numerous resources for conducting PBL.  Educators desiring to implement PBL will benefit from the following books.

• Setting the Standard for Project Based Learning (2015) is by John Larmer, John Mergendoller, and Suzie Boss of the BIE.  They provided the step-by-step method to create, implement, and assess PBL in classrooms, systemwide, and in informal settings.  Sample projects in various grade levels and subject areas are included.

• In Project Based Teaching: How to Create Rigorous and Engaging Learning Experiences, Suzie Boss and John Larmer (2018) further elaborated on the gold-standard for PBL and the seven practices integral to project based teaching.

 

HOT: Project-Based Learning: A Resource for Instructors and Program Coordinators from the National Academy Foundation and Pearson Foundation provides comprehensive coverage on this topic.  You'll find a definition of PBL, questions to consider for when to use PBL, conditions and research supporting PBL, PBL examples and links to resources and training.  Commentary on PBL includes: "The best projects skillfully weave together opportunities for students to engage in classroom activities (Level 1) that address content standards (Level 2) while encouraging them to develop habits of mind (Level 3) and the ability to take responsibility of their own learning (Level 4)" (p. 12).  The 6 A's of PBL are addressed: Authenticity, Academic Rigor, Adult Connections, Active Exploration, Applied Learning, and Assessment Practices.  Finally, within Project Delivery you'll learn about the scaffolding that teachers must consider when implementing sophisticated projects in their classrooms.

Project-Based Learning Professional Development Guide at Edutopia.org from the George Lucas Educational Foundation can be used as a two- to three- hour learning module, or expanded to day-long workshops.  Find out what project based learning is, why it is important, how it works, and get some supporting resources.  Also see Edutopia's Project-Based Learning section.

Project Based Learning explained by Common Craft is a short video with an easy explanation of PBL.

Project Approach to Teaching and Learning in school addresses the foundation theory for using projects, strategic planning, and project development structure.  This is an award winning site by Sylvia Chard of the University of Alberta, Canada. You might also be interested in the interview of Dr. Chard addressing project-based learning, which is Edutopia of the George Lucas Educational Foundation.

In Using the Internet to Promote Inquiry-Based Learning, authors D. Jakes, M. Pennington, and H. Knodle describe a structured approach to inquiry-based learning that uses the World Wide Web.  They address an intuitive 8-step process that begins with an essential question and ends with a knowledge product produced by students, typically completed in a cooperative setting. They discuss the skills that students and teachers require to make inquiry-based learning and the Internet a successful endeavor; and the components of a Project Page, which include the scenario, task, resources, product students will build, and assessment.

The Comprehensive Guide to Project-Based Learning: Empowering Student Choice through an Effective Teaching Method from New Tech Network provides an in-depth overview of this method.

PBL in Math

Yetkiner, Z. E., Anderoglu, H., & Capraro, R. M. (2008). Research summary: Project-based learning in middle grades mathematics. https://my.pblworks.org/resource/document/pbl_in_middle_grades_mathematics. Also available at https://www.amle.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/ProjectBased_Math.pdf

Books

Teaching the Common Core Math Standards with Hands-On Activities, Grades 6-8 by Judith, Gary, and Erin Muschla (2012) has over 100 activities correlated to the CCSS math standards.	Hands-On Math Projects With Real-Life Applications: Grades 6-12 by Judith and Gary Muschla (2006) contains 60 math projects.
Math Projects: 50 Hands-On Projects that Correlate to Specific Math Concepts, Grades 5-8+ (2011) by Joyce Stulgis-Blalock is aligned to Common Core and NCTM standards.	MathART Projects and Activities (Grades 3-5) by Carolyn Brunetto contains dozens of projects within standards for geometry, number & computation, measurement, patterns, statistics, fractions.  You can also find them by season and holiday.
Project Based Learning in the Math Classroom by Chris Fancher and Telannia Norfar (2019) for grades 6-10 includes three sections.  Section 1 addresses Understanding PBL in a Math Classroom; section 2 includes strategies for designing inquiry-based tasks and PBL units; section 3 provides multiple examples of inquiry-based tasks and PBL units.  The authors also have 2021 books by the same name for grades 3-5 and for grades K-2 with similar content.

 

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Design Your Own Math Project or WebQuest

Tony Frontier (2021) provided the following valuable insights about projects if you decide to design your own.

"Designing projects that allow students to be engaged and demonstrate evidence of the most important skills and understanding from a unit of study requires alignment among three elements:

1. The prioritized standard or learning goal.
2. Standards-aligned success criteria.
3. Observable, standards-based evidence from the project that can be described using the most important success criteria." (Three Key Elements section)

At step 2, "Focus on the verbs in the standards such as compare, analyze, describe, design, evaluate, and justify."  Further, "Ensure success criteria focus on the most important, transferable elements of the standards."  (Potential of Projects section)

Frontier (2021) also pointed out some perils of projects to be aware of.

• Don't confuse following directions with evidence of understanding.
• Don't assume more is better.
• Ask yourself this question: Given resources, directions, and time, could students have done this culminating project before the unit even started?

The point of this last question is why have students do the project if it does not relate to what should have been learned from that unit, such as the concepts, skills, and vocabulary (Frontier, 2021).

 

 

Do you need project ideas?

Volker Ulm (2011) had several ideas for potential math projects.  Selection, of course, depends on the skills of your learners for meaningful project-based learning:

• all about circles
• pyramids
• Pythagoras
• parabolas
• surveying activities in the field
• the Earth from a mathematical viewpoint
• the surface area of the school building
• outstanding mathematicians
• mathematics and the arts
• fractals: beauty and chaos in mathematics
• What is the optimum packaging?
• How do we optimize school bus traffic?
• What entrance fees will generate the highest profit for a community outdoor swimming pool? (Ulm, 2011, p. 46)

Use the following to get other ideas:

Applied Math Science Fair Projects posted at Education.com included illustrative images of projects and is searchable by grade level.  You can then download the project.

Math Project Ideas: Examples of Project-Based Learning, posted by EdTecher Heidi Reina at HubPages, includes an extensive collection of engaging projects for all grade levels from general math to money and finance, algebra, geometry, pre-calculus, calculus.  Many have cross-curricular connections.

Origami Resource Center includes project ideas and resources on this topic.  It's easy to connect origami, the art of paper folding, to math and geometry, in particular.  If you think the idea is just for elementary students, view The Origami Revolution (2017, about 50 minutes) from PBS.org.  You'll learn how "engineers and designers are applying its principles to reshape the world around us—and even within us, designing new drugs, micro-robots, and future space missions" (Program description section).

PBLWorks from the Buck Institute for Education includes a database of projects in multiple subjects, including for math.  You can search by subject area, grade level, standards including the Common Core.  Additional resources include articles, blogs, videos, planning tools, rubrics, and student handouts.

Project Ideas for Mathematics and Project Examples, Resources, and Websites are from the American Federation of Teachers.

 

 

Do your learners know what tools to use to design their own math project?

There are multiple tools in a variety of categories on the Web for project-bbooased learning activities.  Certainly, to help them get started, learners will benefit from a list of resources that you anticipate they will need.  Deal (2009) included specific examples within categories such as collaboration suites, course management systems, dedicated project management tools, wikis, web-conferencing tools for real-time communications, collaborative concept mapping tools, presentation and slide sharing tools, online collaborative writing tools, and task management tools.  The choice would depend on the objectives of the assignment and whether or not the project is to be completed by individual learners or collaboratively within groups. 

In addition consider:

Bubble.us is a free web application that allows groups to brainstorm online and create mind maps.  You can embed the map in a blog or website, or save the mind map as an image.  This is a great way to start projects.

Tools for Creativity and Innovation

Infographics templates--15 free templates from Hubspot.com, including how to make an infographic.

Kathy Schrock's Web and AI Online Tools for Creating include an extensive collection of resources for teaching, learning, and creating media.

Makey Makey--an invention kit.  "Turn everyday objects into touchpads and combine them with the internet."

Scratch--a programming language for kids (ages 8 to 16) to create stories, games, and animations, which was developed by MIT.  It is free.  Note: Members of the ScratchEd research team at the Harvard Graduate School of Education developed a free guide, Creative Computing: An Introductory Computing Curriculum for Scratch.  The version for educators includes plans, activities, and strategies for using Scratch and the workbook version for learners has activities and reflection question templates.

Tynker helps learners ages 5-18 to learn how to program.  It promotes itself as "an online platform that easily and successfully teaches students how to code through the activities they already love: games and stories. Students learn the fundamentals of programming and design through Tynker's intuitive visual programming language without the frustrations of traditional syntax" (FAQ section: What is Tynker?).  School pricing is also available.

VRMath 2.0 allows users to create virtual worlds and artifacts.  It "utilises 3D technologies and powerful Web 2.0 ideas for teaching and learning mathematics particularly in geometry. The simple aim of this VRMath 2.0 application is to utilise affordable and innovative technologies to allow learners to freely express their ideas and make meanings of mathematics through multiple knowledge representations (signs, semiotic resources) and interpretations (semiosis). The use of technology is not merely to amplify existing ways of thinking and doing, but to provide an environment and opportunity to re-organise one's thinking and doing about mathematics" (About section).  There are numerous STEM examples to provide project ideas, plus tutorials and help in a wiki, a discussion forum, and an option to share creations.

Tools for Group Projects

Group Project Tools from Carnegie Mellon include team contracts, team roles, self assessments, peer assessments, and group assessments.

iBlocks Project-Based Learning: Per its description, "An iBlock is a 10-part sequence of student-led, teacher-guided lessons and activities that center on technology and culminate in a capstone project.  Students drive the learning and tackle the project as a team, while the teacher facilitates, providing guidance and coaching as students engage in skills-building, career-based exploration."

What is a real WebQuest?

 

 

According to Tom March (2003) in The Learning Power of WebQuests, there are six elements of a real WebQuest:

1. a scaffolded learning experience,
2. use of links to essential resources on the World Wide Web,
3. an authentic task to motivate students' investigation,
4. open-ended questions,
5. development of individual expertise, and
6. participation in a group process that transforms newly acquired information into a more sophisticated understanding.

Some activities may be designed to use Internet resources to produce a product, but can't be classified as WebQuests.  These non-WebQuest activities are those that enable learners to gather information that can go from a browser directly to a product without altering or involving students' understanding, and reflection on their own metacognitive processes.  To assess the real value of a WebQuest, ask "Is this WebQuest real, rich, and relevant?"

Webquest Tutorials, Templates, and Project Examples

Creating a WebQuest: It's Easier Than You Think! from Education World.

WebQuest 101 from TeachersFirst.com will help you get started.

WebQuest Template by Patricia McGee and Deborah Claxton is posted on a Google site.  It includes directions within the sections: Introduction, Task, Process, Evaluation (Rubric), and Conclusion.

WebQuest Maker from Teach-nology.com includes a template.  Fill-in the steps and then the site will generate your webquest.

WebQuests in Online Learning posted at the University of Hawaii will help you to create your own.  In opening statements, the developers noted: "A WebQuest is an inquiry-based, on-line learning activity. The objective of the activity is to promote “transformative” learning outcomes, accomplished through the reading, analysis, and synthesis of online resources. WebQuests use the internet to present content and are often structured to help develop students’ problem-solving and decision-making skills."

ZUNAL is free web-based software for creating WebQuests.  An evaluation rubric is included.  There's also a database of WebQuests, including math WebQuests for K-12, to give you ideas.

 

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Project Assessment

Assessment plays a key role in PBL.  If the nature of your project is collaborative, Ashley Deal (2009) noted that three areas can be assessed.  "Instructors can evaluate the process students use in approaching a given problem and finding solutions; they can assess the final product or end result of the project; or they can evaluate the individual student’s learning outcomes" (p. 4).  However, a single approach to assessment of group work poses a problem, as "a satisfactory final product does not necessarily indicate that students approached the problem according to the preferred process. Similarly, even using the correct process to arrive at a satisfactory final product does not indicate that individual students grasped relevant concepts" (p. 4).  So, more than one level of assessment is recommended.

• Process: "Evaluating a group’s process can help instructors assess procedural and contextual learning. Procedural learning refers to students’ understanding of how to execute some task, while contextual learning describes students’ ability to discern what contexts require the application of given tools or concepts" (Deal, 2009, p. 5).
• Product:  "[A]ssessing the product or outcomes from student work can provide an opportunity to gather information about advancements in student’s metacognitive learning. For example, instructors can ask for reflection on the overall experience and process when students are presenting the final product" (Deal, 2009, p. 5).
• Learning Outcomes: Learning outcomes (e.g., declarative and conceptual knowledge) might be assessed via traditional forms such as short answer and essay questions (Deal, 2009, p. 5).

Susan Brookhart (2013a) provided valuable advice in Grading and Group Work: How do I assess individual learning when students work together? noting the struggle that many teachers have between the need for learners to engage in cooperative learning and the need to provide individual grades.  "Many teachers use group work in the general sense, assigning students to collaborate in groups that result in one undifferentiated product.  But true cooperative learning requires individual accountability.  No matter what kind of cooperative learning or group work you employ, it is important not to give group grades" (Does group work have to mean group grades? section).  She further explains what's wrong with group grades and grading cooperative work versus group work.  She answers: How can I assess learning and process skills?  How can I assess and grade individual students' achievement?  How can I adapt group projects to enable individual grading?

In a recent article, Planning for Fair Group Work, Susan Brookhart and Amir Rasooli (2021) provided four recommendations to implement and assess group work fairly.

1. Establish a clear purpose for working in groups.
2. Use heterogeneous groups, but offer choice if possible.
3. Use flexible seating and design tasks so everyone contributes.
4. Grade individual learning and assess collaboration separately.

The State University of New York at Albany's Institute for Teaching, Learning, and Academic Leadership also developed a useful guide for group projects: How can I design, implement, and grade group projects that ensure student learning?  The guide includes examples of elements of effective group project assignments, including those that can be completed individually contributing to the project.  Of value is the following grading scheme as an example, which focuses on individual assessment:

• "70% individual work, including preparatory and final assignments
• 15% final group project
• 10% group progress reports/intermediate stages of work
• 5% student evaluation/assessment of contributions (their own and those of their group members)" (Examples of elements section).

How can I assess group work? from the Eberly Center at Carnegie Mellon University delves into the challenges and includes samples of group project assessment tools.

Rubrics

Mary Allen (2003) noted that rubrics can be used to evaluate the quality of “virtually any product or behavior, such as essays, research reports, portfolios, works of art, recitals, oral presentations, performances, and group activities. Judgments can be self-assessments by students; or judgments can be made by others, such as faculty, other students, or field-work supervisors. Rubrics can be used to provide formative feedback to students, to grade students, and/or to assess programs” (para. 1).  Essential features include "evaluative criteria, quality definitions, and a scoring strategy" (Popham, 1997, Rudiments section).

There are three common types of rubrics: analytic, developmental, and holistic.  McTighe, Brookhart, and Guskey (2024) noted that all three types share three elements essential to rubrics, but render them in different ways.  That is, as an assessment tool, a rubric consists of "1) a set of criteria aligned to learning goals; 2) a performance scale typically consisting of three or four levels, and 3) descriptors that differentiate the levels of performance on the scale" (para. 3).  

An analytic rubric is often designed in column format with multiple performance criteria listed in the first column and the quality indicator levels, which vary on a continuum, listed in the first row across remaining columns.  Each quality level might contain one point value or a range of points that can be assigned.  Each criteria might also be accompanied by a comment space for additional feedback on the element.  Cells within the rubric might be blank or contain elaborations of each performance criteria for the specific quality level.  The developmental rubric is a subset of the analytic rubric and is based on a theory of development.  It is useful when the goal is to determine a level of development (e.g., of a skill, value, ability, etc.) rather than the quality of a final product.  When using a holistic rubric, a single score (e.g., from 1-4 points on a scale, or 1-6 points on a scale) is assigned based on the overall quality of work in consideration of all criteria.  The evaluator matches the student's work to a single description of it.  For example, ratings might be above average, sufficient, developing, needs improvement with elaborations on criteria for selecting each (DePaul University, Teaching Commons, Types of Rubrics, n.d.).

Students benefit from access to a rubric while they are working on a project.  Knowing the criteria on which they will be assessed is a plus to help them develop, evaluate and tweak their own work prior to submitting it.

Rubrics are valued because they enable objectivity in assessment.  However, when educators design their own rubric or select an existing one, they need to consider the potential increase in cognitive load it might present when actually using it.  The greater the number of criteria and granularity within quality levels, the longer it takes to apply the rubric for one project.  Ranges of point values within a quality level also add a degree of subjectivity to using the rubric.  Then consider the number of projects to be assessed.  Per Popham (1997), if a rubric is to be instructionally useful, its length makes a difference.  Teachers will avoid using overly detailed rubrics, particularly for routine tasks.

Rubrics that include quality indicators requiring evaluators to count errors before assigning a point-value also increase cognitive load and require a level of granularity in grading that not all educators are willing or even able to do.  Of course, this would depend on the objective of the assignment or project.  Scores derived from a rubric might also be affected by terms within quality levels that might be understood differently among evaluators who use the rubric.  Quality elements that differ by only a word or two are particularly challenging to use.  For example, consider quality levels such as: … is not stated, … is stated, …. is clearly stated, … is clearly and concisely stated.

Rubrics might also pose a challenge if the numeric score obtained from it will be translated into letter-grades.

Learn how to create rubrics to help measure quality and student performance on projects with these additional resources. Or, use an existing rubric.

How to Create and Use Rubrics for Formative Assessment and Grading by Susan Brookhart (2013b) includes two sections.  In Section 1, Brookhart lays out the basics of rubrics, explains their importance, discusses common misconceptions, and how to write or select effective rubrics.  She identifies various kinds of rubrics and their essential components.  In Section 2, she explains how to use rubrics for formative assessment and grading.

The following existing rubrics from various locations are of value in projects:

• Creating and Using Rubrics for Assessment from University of Wisconsin-Stout: video and multimedia production, podcasts, web page and ePortfolios, math, oral presentations, and more.
• Oral Presentation Rubric
• Project Based Learning Rubrics provided by PBLWorks from the Buck Institute for Education
• RubiStar from 4teachers.org is a free tool for teachers to create rubrics for projects
• Rubric for Mathematical Presentations from Ball State University
• Webquest Evaluation Rubric from Denton Independent School District in Texas

Teach-nology: Rubric Makers allow you to make grading rubrics by filling out a simple form. The materials are made instantly and can be printed directly from your computer.  You can also customize your own rubric.  Rubrics of interest include homework, class participation, math projects, oral presentations, WebQuests, team work, writing, research reports, and reading.

Tech4Learning: Rubric Maker includes a free version.

 

 

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References

 

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Learn about the technical side of creating multimedia projects, including working with images and video.

See CT4ME Technology Integration: Multimedia in Projects

 

 

 

 

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